The relationship between Hinduism and science

The relationship between Hinduism and science is not easy to describe. Since Hinduism has no centralized ecclesiastical authority, (no “church”) it is impossible to get an official position on science or any other issue. In the case of Christianity, however, one can get the official Roman Catholic position on science and similarly on can get an official Lutheran or Baptist positions on evolution, on capital punishment, abortion, or birth control, and so on, but this is not the case with Hinduism. Individual Hindu groups (sampradayas) may have official positions determined by a guru, but in general, there are no large organizations that speak for major segments of the tradition. Consequently, we can only address the relationship between Hinduism and science in the most general of terms.
What we can say, is that Hinduism, like Christianity, Judaism and Islam is a metaphysical system. Science, on the other hand, is non metaphysical and so accepts no divine or "outside the system" source. In this way, Hinduism stands along side the major theologies of the world in its relation to science. That Hinduism has a polytheistic side, unlike Judaism, Christianity and Islam, matters little when it comes to the issue of science. The key point is that Hinduism is a metaphysical tradition, whereas science is not.

The words of the Vedas

In many ways the relationship between science and religion can be determined by how the members of a particular religion view scripture. And as might be expected, within Hinduism, there are conservative Hindu views, modern liberal views and everything in between. Conservative Hindus accept the Vedas as the direct revelation of God and therefore inerrant. Whatever is stated in the Vedas, even if it is contrary to reason, sense perception and modern science, must be accepted. This is religious fundamentalism. On the other hand, there are Hindus who admit that the Vedas contain much that is spiritual, yet they also think that the Vedas are not infallible and so those parts of the Vedas which contradict reason or science can be rejected. This is religious liberalism, and it involves a high degree of rationalism and secularization. And finally there are Hindus, the mass majority of whom, accept that the Vedas contain divine revelation, but think that such revelation is not free of errors because the Vedas have been written and interpreted by human beings who are flawed and conditioned by their place history. Consequently, those parts of the Vedas that seem out of step with reason and proven science are not to be rejected, but must be reinterpreted in a way that conforms to reason and, ultimately, science. All three of these approaches fall within the realm of what, in theology, is called hermeneutics or the interpretation of sacred writings. Indeed, all religions have adherents who subscribe to one of these basic modes of scriptural interpretation and therefore their views towards science follows one of these three general modes.

The Periodic Table

Here is an example of how an important Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad Gita, might regard modern science. There is a chapter of the Gita is entitled, Sankhya Yoga. The word "sankhya" means “counting,” “enumeration,” or “analysis.” In the Gita there is a simple form of "analysis" that classifies matter into eight constituent elements: earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence and ego. This is essentially a periodic table and an excellent example of early science or what used to be called natural philosophy. Even before the Gita, Hindu thinkers had taken this theme of “counting” and developed it into one of the six traditional philosophies of ancient India called Saankhya. From the perspective of Bhagavad Gita, it is fair to say that modern science is simply a highly detailed analysis of matter and so, in this sense, there is no conflict between the Gita and science. Modern science is simply more of what ancient Hindu thinkers had been doing for millennia, but where the Gita would disagree with modern science is that modern science does not go far enough in its analysis of reality. Vedic "science" is not simply about the mere analysis of matter, but it also includes the analysis soul and God. In other words, it includes metaphysical reality as well as physical reality. The sankhya of the Gita therefore includes an analysis of physical reality as well as a spiritual reality. At present, modern science only accepts physical reality as its domain of study, but the call from the Gita is that ordinary science should also explore the metaphysical dimensions of life and so become a complete form of sankhya. But an objection can be made that science does not need to include such metaphysical issues as the soul and God because philosophy and theology already do this. I think the answer from the Gita would be that physical reality and spiritual reality are ultimately inseparable, and therefore, any study of one that omits the presence of the other will create a false or incomplete body of knowledge. Therefore even such non physical sciences as psychology, biology, or the medical sciences must include at least the premise that at the heart of reality there is a spiritual foundation, and even though we may not be equipped to see it at this point, it is there nonetheless and must be accounted for.
This simple example illustrates how, from a Hindu perspective, religion and science are related, but of course, most modern scientists, at present, would be hard pressed to include metaphysics within their scientific perspective and methodology. From a Hindu perspective, modern science is a legitimate, but incomplete, step towards knowing and understanding reality. From a modern scientific perspective, Hinduism goes too far in its assumption of what constitutes the foundations of reality and the means of knowing this reality. The relationship between Hinduism and science is, therefore, mixed. On the one hand, the basic approach of science can be accepted, but when it comes to the acceptance of metaphysical elements of reality the Gita and the Vedas embrace these principles as essential to the pursuit of truth, current science cannot.
Consequently it is fair to say that the Hindu view of science is not that it is wrong, but that it only offers a limited view of reality. Until science is able to open itself to the exploration of metaphysical reality, it will remain incapable of understanding the full nature of reality. In general, the middle and liberal sides of Hinduism are favorable and open to science. The conservative sides of Hinduism, however, will remain closed to science. Interestingly, I see the gradual acceptance of a metaphysical view of reality by modern science an increasing possibility as more work is done in “cutting edge” areas of research like quantum mechanics, particle and string theories, cosmology and other areas that seems to point to answers that go beyond the common mechanistic view of the universe. It will be exciting to watch and see where these new theories lead.

There is another relationship between science and religion that is current, but which, in my opinion, is a wrong attempt to link Hinduism and modern science. This is the attempt to read into the Rig Veda and other Hindu religious texts allegorical renderings that contain so called secret or vague references to modern ideas such as particle theory or quantum mechanics. I have seen interpretations by modern Hindus that attempt to show how modern particle theory was known at the time of the Rig Veda, and how this knowledge was secretly inserted into the text of the Vedas. I have seen attempts by modern Hindus to rationalize and reinterpret Puranic cosmology, which holds a geocentric view of the universe and describes the sun as closer to the earth than the moon, to name just a few differences, in terms of modern astronomy. As we have mentioned, from a Hindu perspective, there is no problem in exploring the possible religious implications of quantum mechanics, string theory or any other modern scientific theory that may open the way for modern science to explore a metaphysical view of the universe, but to read such theories back into the pages of the Vedas in order to justify faith or with so called Hindu nationalistic (Hindu-tva) motivations is not science at all. I caution my readers to be aware of such extreme reinterpretations of sacred writing.

  

The Importance of Sanskrit to Hinduism

Hinduism and Sanskrit are inseparably related. The roots of much of Hinduism can be traced to the dawn of Vedic civilization. From its inception, Vedic thought has mainly been expressed through the medium of the Sanskrit language. Sanskrit, therefore, forms the basis of Hindu civilization.

As language changes, so religion changes. In the case of Hinduism, Sanskrit stood for millennia as the carrier of most of Vedic thought before its dominance gradually gave way to the vernacular lanuages that eventually evolved into the modern day languages of Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali, Telugu, Kannada, and so on. Although the foundations of Hinduism are largely built on the vocabulary and syntax of Sanskrit, these modern languages are now the primary carriers of Hindu thought within India. While the shift from Sanskrit to these regional languages forced a change in the meaning of words, and therefore a change in how subsequent generations interpreted the religion, the shift was at least within the context of languages that were related to Sanskrit.

In the last century, however, a new phenomenon has been occurring. Hinduism has begun to emerge in the West in two significant forms. One is from Westerners who have come to embrace some variety of Hinduism through contact with a Hindu religious teacher. The other is through the immigration of Hindus who were born in India and who have now moved to the West. One of the first and most striking examples of the former scenario was Swami Vivekananda’s appearance in Chicago at the Parliament of World Religions in 1896. At the time, Vivekananda received wide coverage in the American press and later in Europe as he traveled to England and other parts of Europe. Along the way he created many followers. Swami Vivekananda was the trailblazer for a whole series of Hindu teachers that have come to the West and who still continue to arrive today. The incursion of so many Hindu holy men has brought a new set of Hindu vocabulary and thought to the mind of popular Western culture.

The other important transplantation of Hinduism into the West has occurred with the increase in immigration to America and other Western countries of Hindus from India. In particular, during the 1970s America saw the influx of many Indian students who have subsequently settled in America and brought their families. These groups of immigrant Hindus are now actively engaged in creating Hindu temples and other institutions in the West.

As Hinduism expands in the West, the emerging forms of this ancient tradition are naturally being reflected through the medium of Western languages, most prominent of which, is English. But as we have pointed out, the meanings of words are not easily moved from one language to the next. The more distant two languages are separated by geography, latitude and climate, etc. the more the meanings of words shift and ultimately the more the worldview shifts. While this is a natural thing, it does present the danger that the emerging Hindu religious culture in the West may drift too far afield. The differences between the Indian regional languages and Sanskrit are minuscule when compared to the differences between a Western language such as English and Sanskrit.

With this problem in mind, the great difficultly in understanding Hinduism in the West, whether from the perspective of conversion or from a second generation of Hindus, is that it is all too easy to approach Hinduism with foreign concepts of religion in mind. It is natural to unknowingly approach Hinduism with Christian, Jewish and Islamic notions of God, soul, heaven, hell and sin in mind. We translate brahman as God, atman as soul, papa as sin, dharma as religion. But brahman is not the same as God; atman is not equivalent to the soul, papa is not sin and dharma is much more than mere religion. To obtain a true understanding of sacred writings, such as the Upanisads or the Bhagavad-gita, one must read them on their own terms and not from the perspective of another religious tradition. Because the Hinduism now developing in the West is being reflected through the lens of Christianity, Judaism and Islam, the theological uniqueness of Hinduism is being compromised or completely lost.

Ideally, anyone attempting to understand Hinduism should have a working knowledge of Sanskrit. Ideally, all Hindu educational institutions and temples should teach Sanskrit, and all Hindu youth should learn Sanskrit. In reality this is not occurring, nor is it likely to occur. The critical mass that it takes to create a culture of Sanskrit learning is not here.

Even within the Hindu temples that are appearing in the West as a result of Hindu immigration, the demand for Sanskrit instruction is not there. And why should it be there? After all, these first generations of Hindu immigrants themselves do not know Sanskrit. Their Hinduism is through the regional languages. One may argue that Hinduism is still related closely enough to its Sanskritic roots through the regional languages. The problem with this argument is that even these regional languages are not being aggressively taught to the new generation. And if the history of other immigrant cultures to American is any gauge, the regional languages of India will die out after one or two generations in the great melting pot of America. This means that the Hindu youth of the second generation are gradually losing their regional ethnic roots and becoming increasingly westernized.

I do not suggest that this means the end of Hinduism. In fact I see positive signs when Hindu youth come to temples for darsana and prayer and increasingly ask for Hindu weddings and other pujas. But it does suggest that the new Hinduism that is developing in the West will evolve in a way that is divorced from its vernacular roots, what to speak of its Sanskritic roots, as Christianity in the West has developed separated from its original language base.

A solution to this problem of religious and cultural drift is to identify and create a glossary of Sanskrit religious words and then to bring them into common usage. Words such as brahman, dharma, papa should remain un-translated and become part of the common spoken language when we speak of Hindu matters. In this way, at least an essential vocabulary that contains the subtleties of Hinduism can remain in tact. To a limited extent this is already occurring. Words such as karma, yoga and dharma are a part of common English speech, although not with their full religious meanings intact. In the right hand column is a list of terms along with a summary of their meanings that I suggest should be learned and remain un-translated by students of Hinduism. These are terms taken primarily from the Bhagavad-gita and the major Upanisads.

Introduction 

Seniors Doing Puja

As I prepare this small volume, I do so from two perspectives: from one who has studied and teaches Hinduism academically, and as a priest who ministers to the needs of people. In university, I learned Sanskrit and read the ancient texts of Hinduism. It was the Hinduism of a thousand years ago, but now, as a priest, I experience Hindu religious life from a radically different perspective. Daily, I see the elderly who were born in India and hardly speak a word of English and who only came to the West in their senior years to be with their children who have immigrated here. This is a Hinduism that is completely foreign to the West. I also see their children who have come here as the first generation, and who have established businesses and started families. This is a Hinduism based on what is practical, designed to support the need to make money and live in the West. It is also a Hinduism that reflects the distinct traditions of all regions of India. Now I am even seeing the Western-born children of this first generation. This is the second generation raised on computers, pizza, Western sports and "fast-food" culture. Theirs' is a Hinduism that has yet to take formal shape, and one that is struggling to find an identity in the matrix of Western culture. Moreover, I see large numbers of non-Hindus who have become interested in Hinduism, having come into contact with these immigrant Hindus and their children through marriage, business or friendships, and I see students and other interested parties coming to our temples out of curiosity or looking for spiritual nourishment. I have, therefore, the fortune of dealing with a large multi-lingual and multi-ethnic base of Hindus and non-Hindus who are striving to establish various degrees of Hindu culture in the West. I prepare this volume primarily to help the last two groups, the Western-born generation of Indo-Westerners and the emerging Western community, who is interested in Hinduism and our Hindu religious traditions.

I have before me four primers, all of which are acceptable as an introduction to Hinduism and which could easily satisfy the needs of most readers. So why create another introduction to Hinduism? In preparing this Hindu primer I have three specific purposes. First, to provide our readers with a methodology by which to understand religion in general; and therefore, a means to understand this most ancient of all religious traditions. It is not enough to simply tell our readers that we worship many Gods, celebrate certain festivals, fast on certain days or ring bells, as most primers do, but to explain why these things have been done for generations in India and why we may want to continue to do these things in the West, or why we may not want to continue these traditions. Second, I want to help smooth out the process of defining what it means to be Hindu in the West, given the conditions of modernity. To be religious 2500 years ago, 500 years ago, or even 50 years ago in any tradition is not the same as what it means to be religious today. Religion exists in the here and now, and although Hinduism is the most ancient of the world's living religious traditions, it is still a child in the West, particularly in America. This creates many challenges because there are few long-standing models to follow, which means that all practitioners of this great tradition in the West are pioneers. Finally, and most important of all, this primer attempts to explain how the reader can participate in this tradition and at the same time prosper in a modern society. For every Hindu living in the modern world, a great marriage must take place; namely, the bringing together of the best of modernity with the best of the ancient traditions of Hinduism. This book is intended to facilitate this great marriage.

The Origins of Hinduism 

Indo-Aryan Migration Theory

In terms of its religious development there are now two basic theories that attempt to explain how Hinduism first developed within India, and they both draw on the famous ekam sat viprah bahudha vadanti verse for their effectiveness. One suggests that at some time towards the end of the Indus Valley Civilization (circa 1700 BCE) a group of nomadic people called the Aryans moved into northern India from the steppes of central Europe or even Asia Minor. This is called the "Indo-Aryan Migration Theory" and it was first posited after the relationship between Sanskrit, Greek and Latin was discovered along with other archeological evidence that emerged in the late 18th century. According to this view, these Aryans mixed with the indigenous Dravidian and other peoples of the Indian sub-continent, and in time the Aryan religious stream combined with the indigenous streams and became what today we call Hinduism.

The other theory suggests that Hinduism emerged out of India itself. This is the "Out of India Theory" and it says that Aryan culture is a development from the Indus valley civilization and not one introduced by outside invaders or migrants. It says that the religious development of Hinduism has been wholly indigenous. It also suggests that the linguistic similarities between Sanskrit, Greek and Latin are the result of Aryan migrations in the opposite direction, out of India and into Europe. Aryan tribes from within India spread throughout Europe bringing their culture, language and religion. Passages from the Mahabharata and other Hindu texts are quoted in support of this theory.
Whether the Aryans came from outside the subcontinent or whether Aryan culture developed within India, matters little for our purposes here. Hinduism should be regarded as a development of at least 3,000 years of Aryan culture working within the Indian subcontinent according to the rule of ekam sat viprah bahudha vadanti. The unifying force of this sublime verse is what has created the Hinduism of today.

Vedas: the Sacred Writings of Hinduism 

What is Scripture?

What are the sacred writings of Hinduism? This question begs a more basic question, namely, what are sacred writings? In other words, before we can discuss the sacred writings of Hinduism, we should first come to an understanding of scripture. When we use the terms "sacred writings" or "scripture," this implies written texts. As we have noted earlier, written texts are a part of a cumulative religious tradition, the "stuff" of religion. In many cases, and particularly in the case of India, the original sacred texts were not texts at all; they were oral transmissions passed down from teacher to student through memorization. But even these transmissions are part of a cumulative religious tradition, and though it was considered profane to put these sacred dialogues into writing, today, virtually all sacred writings of all major religions are in the form of written documents, scripture. Given this fact, one could argue that what scripture actually is are voice sounds and words on paper, or more likely today, digital code and marks on a computer screen. In this sense, scripture is not different from any common dialogue or piece of writing. But we know there is a world of difference between scripture and a common newspaper or a novel. Scripture is sacred. Newspapers and common novels are secular. It is therefore, the quality of "sacredness" that creates the difference between scripture and an ordinary piece of writing.

What is the source of such sacredness? Is it something within the voice of the teacher or the text itself that creates sacredness? The answer to this question is the same as what lays at the heart of religion; namely, faith. It is the faith of the reader that gives sacredness to the written text. A person reads a common newspaper with a certain mental state; he interacts with the newspaper in a certain way; the same reader, when he reads a religious text, also enters a certain mental state, but in this case he perceives the religious text as sacred. When reading the religious document his mental state is one of "scripturalizing." Through his faith, he scriptualizes the religious document. Another reader, without the element of religious faith, reads the same religious document simply as a literary or an historical document and so may not perceive the scriptural aspect of the text. What is scripture, therefore, is determined by the mental state of the reader; and when enough readers agree that a certain document deserves the stature of sacredness, the document attains the collective status of "sacred writing," scripture. This is how scripture is created. One may also argue that it is the word of God or even of saints that create sacredness, but we know that one person's God may be another person's demi-god or even a demon, and that one person's saint can also be another person's terrorist. It always comes down to individual and collective faith. All aspects of a cumulative religious tradition are predicated upon faith.

The Shruti Vedas

The Four Vedas

There is good evidence that the ancient Indian, Zoroastrian, Greek, Roman, and pre-Christian European religions all share a common Aryan heritage. They are of the same religious type, even though they have been processed differently. The great contribution of these Aryans in India was primarily their language, Sanskrit, and their sacred writings, the early Vedas. The word veda comes from the Sanskrit root vid, "to know." So the Vedas are literally what was known by the ancient Aryans, in other words, their sacred knowledge. As we have noted, the reference to writings is not strictly correct because the early Aryan traditions in India were oral. The sacred traditions of early Hinduism inform us that their seers, known as risis, "heard" the Vedas. By "heard" we mean that a kernel of these Vedas appeared in the hearts of these seers, who then elaborated upon this kernel to produce the oral tradition of the Vedas. The early Vedic tradition is consequently called shruti, "what is heard." This shruti tradition was also known as an apaurusheya tradition. Purusha means man, paurusheya means composed by man and apaurusheya means not composed by man, i.e., made by God. Today, this shruti tradition appears as the four Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva. These four Vedas comprise what is often called the Shruti Vedas. These four Vedas were then each divided into four divisions known as branches:

Samhitas,

Brahmanas,

Aranyakas and

Upanishads

The Samhitas are hymns praising various Vedic Deities. These Deities, for the most part, do not include the common Deities of modern Hinduism: Krishna, Rama, Shiva and Hanuman for example. Instead, the primary Deities of the Shruti Vedas are Agni, Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Soma, the Rudras, the Vasus, and a whole host of Deities that are barely known in modern Hinduism. The Deities of the Shruti Vedas are primarily "nature" Gods and these Samhita hymns were used to call upon these Deities for rain, food and other necessities of life. These hymns formed the substance of the rituals used to propitiate these Deities. The Brahmanas are works detailing these rituals. They may be compared to the Book of Leviticus in the Bible. They are technical books describing the details of the Agni Hotra or fire and other rituals. They elaborately describe the articles to be used in these ceremonies as well as the cosmic significance of these rituals to the universe. The Brahmanas are the beginnings of Hindu theological reflections. The next branch of the Vedas are the Aranyakas. Aranya means forest and aranyaka means "in the forest." These forest works continue the theological speculations of early Hinduism, but they go beyond the rituals and start to develop the theology of the early Aryans that eventually takes mature form in the Upanishads which, today, are the most well known part of the Shruti Vedas. The Upanishads are the premier theological discussions of early Hinduism and they appear mainly in the form of dialogues between students and teachers asking such question as, What is soul? What is God? What is the nature of reality? What is death? and so forth. The number of Upanishads varies with the highest number being over a hundred. Today, the most popular number of Upanishads are between 10 and 13. The famous teacher, Shankara commented on 10 Upanishads. Later Madhva and others followed his example. These works are well worth reading for they are some of the most profound theological discussions of humankind.

Interestingly, these four Shruti Vedas appear in a version of the Sanskrit language that is considerably different than the Sanskrit of modern Hinduism. This early Sanskrit is generally called Vedic Sanskrit as opposed to the more common classical Sanskrit of modern Hinduism. In addition to these four Vedas, there are a set of works collectively called the Vedangas, supplementary works. In order to read and perform the rituals of the Shruti Vedas, one needed a knowledge of grammar, meter, pronunciation, astronomy/astrology, and so forth. These are the Vedangas, which are traditionally six in number. For the most part these four Vedas, along with all their divisions and the Vedangas, comprise the Shruti Vedas.

The Smriti Vedas

Bhagavata Purana

Hinduism views time in great cyclic periods known as yugas. There are four such yugas and today we live in the time period known as Kali Yuga. This is the period of spiritual darkness, ignorance and destruction. At the beginning of this Kali Yuga, it is described how the great sage, Vyasa, looked into the future and saw mankind in a fallen condition with decreased mental abilities and a shortened life span; and so, to mitigate the suffering of mankind, he codified and put the Shruti Veda into writing. He also saw the need for a simplified form of the Shruti Vedas that could be understood by the fallen people of Kali Yuga, so he created what is sometimes called the "fifth Veda." This fifth Veda is a catch-all term that refers to all subsequent developments after the four original Vedas. This new phase of the tradition is called the Smriti Vedas and it is described as a paurusheya, man-made tradition. Literally, smriti means "remembered," but a better way to think of this later Vedic tradition is in terms of what has been made by man and written down from the outset. Thus the Smriti Vedas are the Vedas for Kali Yuga and they include the two epics poems, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, and the numerous Puranas that, all together, form the basis of modern Hinduism. The compiler of this fifth Veda is known to be Veda Vyasa, but he word vyasa simply means compiler and debate continues whether there is one Vyasa or many vyasas. Popular tradition informs us that there was only one Vyasa. The Mahabharata is the history of ancient India from the beginning of Kali Yuga and the famous Bhagavad Gita (The Song of God) appears within this great epic. The other major epic of ancient India is the Ramayana composed by the sage Valmiki. The Ramayana is said to predate the Mahabharata, but it is also included within the compass of the Smriti Vedas. The Ramayana is the story of Rama and Hanuman, two of the most popular Divinities of modern Hinduism.

As far as the Puranas are concerned, they are collections of ancient stories. The word purana means old and so they are compilations of old stories about gods, sages, and kings, along with the genealogies of famous royal families. The Puranas include stories of creation, destruction, and stories taken from different yugas and even different parts of creation such as the various heavens and hells. Tradition mentions eighteen Puranas, the most common of which are: the Bhagavata, the Vishnu, the Shiva, the Skanda and the Garuda Puranas. There is even a set of smaller Puranas known as upapuranas that are also eighteen in number. Most people, however, do not know all these works. In general, the two epics and the Puranas comprise the bulk of modern-day Hinduism. Of all these books, theologically the Bhagavad Gita is the most prominent book within the Smriti tradition. If the Upanishads are the most prominent works of the Shruti tradition, it is safe to say that modern Hinduism is mainly based on the works of the Ramayana, the Bhagavata Purana and the Bhagavad Gita. The Mahabharata is well known, but it is so vast, over ten times the size of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, and therefore so overwhelming, that it is almost unreadable. Many people are even afraid to keep a Mahabharata in their homes since it describes the story of a devastating war that almost ended humanity. People do not want war in their homes.

There are also many other works that are not written in Sanskrit, but which also play a major role in modern Hinduism. The most common of these works is the "Hindi Ramayana" known as the Ramcharit Manas, by Tulsi Das. It is a devotional reworking of the original Sanskrit Ramayana composed in Hindi about 500 years ago. The famous Hanuman Chalisa, forty verses in praise of Hanuman, is taken from this Hindi Ramayana and is still commonly recited today. Another set of books that are not in Sanskrit, but which also inspire the lives of millions of Hindus today in South India are the works of the twelve Alwars. This is the Divya Prabhanda, which is a collection of beautiful devotional and theological prayers written in Tamil. These are ancient works and they are also considered to be "Vedic." In addition, there are many secular works also included within the general category of being Vedic. These are works on medicine, Ayur Veda; law, the Dharma Shastra; architecture, Vastu Shastra; political science, Artha Shastra; morality, Niti Shastra; and of course, love and pleasure, the Kama Shastra. So all of these, the Shruti and Smriti Vedas, comprise the shastra or sacred writings of Hinduism.

 

The Religious Order: Sampradaya 

Hinduism, like most religions, has many religious groupings. The Sanskrit word for this is sampradaya, which comes from the verbal root “da” meaning to “give.” A sampradaya therefore is something that is “given” or passed down from generation to generation. Hence, the idea of a religious tradition, a religious denomination or a religious sect. Each of these groupings fall within the idea of a sampradaya.
In general terms Hinduism breaks down into four broad groupings determined by which Deity is the major object of worship. There are Shaivas who focus on Shiva, Vaishnavas who revere Vishnu, Shaaktas who focus on a female form of Divinity, and many folk traditions. The expression “folk traditions” is a catchall phrase to mean the huge number of local traditions that pervade every part of Hinduism and which commonly intermix with the Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shaakta traditions. Each of these major groupings can be called a sampradaya, but even more so, within each of these major groupings there are many sub-groupings that can also be called sampradayas. Amongst the Shaivas, for example, there are Kashmiri Shaivas and Siddhanta Shaivas. Amongst the Vaishnavas there are Shri Vaishnavas, Madhva Vaishnavas, and Gaudiya Vaishnava, and many others. In this way, we can speak of each major grouping as a sampradaya as well as each sub-grouping as a sampradaya. If we compared this to Christianity, it would be somewhat similar to saying, Christianity is divided into three major groupings, Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants and within each of these major groupings are many sub-groups. Amongst Protestants, for example, there are Baptists, Methodists, Anglicans, Quakers, and so on. All of these major groupings and sub-groupings are the "sampradayas" of Christianity.

The Hindu idea of sampradaya is the closest thing to the idea of a religion in the traditional sense. Elsewhere we spoke of different models of religion, namely the tree and the river models. Hinduism we described as a river model and distinct from most other religions that follow a tree model of religion. The idea of the sampradaya is like a tree. Most of the sampradayas of Hinduism start from a source, a major philosopher or guru. Ramanuja is the founder of the Shri sampradaya of Vaishnavas, Madhva is the founder of Madhva Vaishnavas and so forth. Similarly Shankara is the founder of a major sampradaya of Hinduism called Advaita Vedanta. In this way Hinduism contains many religions within its scope.

 

 

Mantras 

Simply stated, a mantra is a religious utterance composed in Sanskrit verse and taken from the some part of the Vedas. In other words, a mantra is a piece of Vedic poetry. The verses of the Vedas, including both the Shruti Vedas as well as the Smriti Vedas, are mostly written in verse and therefore are considered mantras. The reason the Vedas are primarily composed in verse as opposed to prose is because they were originally meant to be memorized, not written down, and verse is much easier to memorize than prose.
A mantra is also an utterance composed in a special way to effect a certain result. For example, there can be a specific mantra addressed to a certain Deity, which when chanted properly, is thought to evoke the presence and powers of that Deity. The Gayatri mantra is one such example. The Hare Krishna mantra is another example. In these cases the mantras are often chanted over and over again in a process called japa. The repetition of mantras is called mantra-japa and a devotee many take a vow to repeat a certain mantra many times a day. Often during initiation (diksha) a teacher (guru) will give a special mantra to a disciple and ask him to chant it a certain number of times a day on a set of beads called a japa-mala, similar to a rosary.
A mantra can also be used as part of a spell or charm. There are portions of the Vedas that contain such mantras meant to achieve various purposes. Mantras also have a use in meditation to help achieve a certain state of consciousness. One derivation for the word mantra is man+tra. Man means the mind (from manas) and tra means “to cross,” so a mantra is an utterance that ‘crosses the mind.” In meditation the mind is “crossed over” or silenced. Hence the meaning of the term mantra.

Sacred Songs: Bhajana/Kirtana 

Temple Bhajans

Bhajana and Kirtana both mean "to praise" and "to glorify" a Deity through song, music and dance. Hindus from different parts of India will use one term over the other, in much the same way that havan and homa are interchanged by devotees from different regions of India. Kirtana comes from the Sanskrit root kirt, "to call out" and bhajana comes from bhaj, "to practice." Apart from praising a Deity through song and music, bhajana can also have the added meaning of "spiritual practice." A devotee, for example, may have a personal bhajana that he or she practices on a daily basis that may include puja, japa, study, meditation, prayer, and so on.

Street Sankirtana

Used in the sense of praise and glorification, bhajana and kirtana involve a group of devotees coming together in a temple, hall or home, with musical instruments to sing the glories of a Deity or, more usually, many Deities. Bhajana and Kirtana are often preceded by a short puja for sanctification and to evoke the Deities who are the object of veneration. At the conclusion of bhajana and kirtana, prasada, in the form of offered food, is always distributed. Without this prasada the program is not complete.

Kirtana also has a variation called sankirtana which is the public praise and glorification of a Deity. Sankirtana parties, groups of devotees, go into the public areas of a city and walk down the streets or sit in the parks singing and chanting the names and a Deity. The Hare Krishna movement is famous for the performance of sankirtana in many Western cities. In India sankirtana is commonly performed by many other groups of devotees as well.

 

 

The Meaning of Sounds: the Reciting of OM,
Chanting Shanti, Blowing a Conch and Ringing Bells

Why do we blow a conch?
In the Bhagavad-gita it is described that at the beginning of the great battle Lord Krishna blew this divine conch and then was followed by the others, Yuddhisthira, Bheema, Arjuna, and so on. The sound of the conch is the sound of victory and success. We blow a conch at the beginning of aratis and other programs as an auspicious sound to invite victory and success. I particularly like to blow a conch at the end of a wedding as the newly married couple walk down the aisle.
Why do we ring bells in a temple?
It is common to ring bells in temples during puja and arati. A priest, for example, will ring a bell as he performs puja. This is to signal people that a puja is taking place and they should pay attention. Bells are rung during arati for similar reasons and to create a pleasing musical effect on the mind. Sometimes a bell is positioned at the entrance to a temple so that devotees can ring the bell as they enter the temple. The temple is the house of God and  so it is only polite to make a sound before one enters. Don’t we always knock before entering someone’s home? Besides, ringing bells is fun.

Why do we say Shaanti at the end of havans?

The word shanti means peace and it is recited not just at the end of havans but also at other times during most pujas. There is a well known Vedic prayer called Shanti Patha that asks for peace throughout creation that is commonly recited at the end of havans. Here is a translation:
May we find peace in the sky above us and in the highest reaches of heaven. May we find peace on land and in the waters. May all herbs and the food that sustains us bring us physical and spiritual peace. May we find peace in every region of this divine creation. Let us seek ultimate peace in that Supreme God. Let peace reign throughout the world!
Why do we chant Om?
At its most basic level the word “om” is a solemn affirmation and respectful assent somewhat on par with Amen in the Jewish and Christian traditions. Om is uttered at the beginning and end of sacred prayers. The word first appears in the Upanishads as a mystical sound and the object of deep meditation. There are, of course, many works written on the significance and meaning of this sound. Most commonly it is divided into three parts a, u, m, and meaning is been given to each part. In the Mandukya Upanishad the letter “a” represents waking consciousness, the letter “u” represents dream consciousness, and the letter “m” represents the consciousness of deep sleep, and finally the whole word is said to represent a 4th state of consciousness which is unknowable, unspeakable and “into which the whole world passes.” Another interpretation equates “a” with Vishnu, “u” with Shiva and “m” with Brahma. Yet another interpretation equates Om with the Greek, “logos,” “the word”, found at the beginning of St John’s gospel. I suggest that the syllable Om should not be analyzed or interpreted at all. It just is. But if you must interpret it, take it as the sound of God.

Gayatri Mantra 

There is a famous prayer in Sanskrit that first appears in the Rig Veda (iii /62/10) called the gayatri mantra that almost every Hindu knows. In roman letters it is as follows:

Om bhur bhuvah svah
tat-savitur varenyam
bhargo devasya dhimahi
dhiyo yo nah pracodayat

Gayatri in Devanagari letters

Literally hundreds of books and thousands of web pages are currently dedicated to explaining the esoteric meaning of this mantra, so I will not repeat that discussion. Instead I will provide a basic grammatical explanation of this most famous mantra and if you are new to Hinduism and want to know at least one prayer, this is the prayer you should learn.
Gayatri is actually the name for a Sanskrit poetical meter that contains three lines of eight syllables each. There are, therefore, many gayatri mantras, but this particular one is the oldest and most well known of all gayatri mantras. In Hinduism all Gods and Goddesses have a gayatri mantra associated with them. There is a gayatri for Ganesha, one for Shiva, one for Durga, one for Vishnu, one for Lakshmi, and so on. Most people are unaware of this fact and when Hindus talk about the gayatri mantra they mean thee gayatri mantra shown above, which is addressed to Savitri, the sun. The first line: om bhur bhuvah svah that you see above is not actually part of a gayatri mantra. It is a special utterance called vyahriti that has been added to the beginning of this famous gayatri . This vyahriti is important in and of itself and we will discuss it after we have explained the basic gayatri mantra. The three lines of this gayatri mantra are:

1. tat-savitur varenyam.

2. bhargo devasya dhimahi, and

3. dhiyo yo nah pracodayat

Here is a word-for-word breakdown of the gayatri mantra that most Hindus know.
tat–that (God)
savitur–of the sun
varenyam–the best
bhargo (bhargas)–light, illumination
devasya–divine
dhimahi–let us meditate (a verb)
dhiyo (dhiyah)–thought(s)
yo (yah)–which
nah–of us, our
pracodayat–May it push, inspire (a verb)

Savitri: the Sunrise

The deity associated with this gayatri mantra, as we mentioned, is the sun, savitri. (The second word of this mantra.) The more common name for the sun is surya. Generally "surya" is the name for the sun while it is above the horizon and savitri is the sun as it is rising and setting, just below the horizon. There is a great metaphor in Hinduism that when understood explains a lot about the Hindu way of seeing the universe. The metaphor is: “the sun equals light, which equals knowledge, which equals consciousness.” This metaphor applies not only to the gayatri mantra, but also to the design of temples and homes, and to details such as why we circumambulate from left to right and offer incense and lamps in a clockwise direction.
The most important word in the gayatri mantra is the word, “tat,” which is a neuter pronoun meaning “that.” It is a reference to “that One," God. According to the metaphor mentioned above, the sun, which is the source of illumination, heat, food and so many other things in our life, can naturally be seen as the “representative” or symbol of God in this world. There are two verbs in the gayatri mantra, dhimahi and prachodayat. Dhimahi means, “let us meditate.“ So, “let us meditate on the light (bhargo) of the sun which represents God.” This is the basic meaning of the first part of the gayatri mantra.
The second part is also straight forward. The verb prachodayat literally means , “it should push,” but in more poetic language we can translate it as “let it inspire.” Dhiyah is “thoughts,” so dhiyo yo nah prachodayat means, “may our thoughts be inspired” So the most literal meaning of the gayatri mantra is, “Let us meditate on the light of the sun which represents God, and may our thoughts be inspired by that divine light.”

Gayatri Devi

As with most things Hindu, the gayatri mantra is also personified as the Goddess, Gayatri Devi. She is the wife of Brahma and is pictured with five heads sitting on a lotus. She is the embodiment of the supreme brahman. You will also see other depictions of Gayatri Devi that vary somewhat.
The gayatri mantra is traditionally whispered into the ear of a young boy in a ceremony called The Thread Giving Ceremony (upanayana), which is one of the rites of passage followed by many Hindus. In addition, the gayatri mantra is repeated during daily prayers performed by many Hindus three times a day, while facing the sun: at sunrise, at noon and at sun set. It is also common to recite the gayatri as part of a havan, or to recite it in a collective way in temples or homes.

The Great Utterance

The first part of the gayatri mantra, om bhur bhuvah svah, which we mentioned at the beginning as not part of the mantra, is called vyahriti or the “great utterance.” This mantra is repeated not only in conjunction with the gayatri mantra, but also separately during havans or fire ceremonies. The word om is a auspicious sound made at the beginning of many prayers. The expression bhur bhuvah and svah is technical, but a simple way to think of it is as a “call to creation,” that the light of the sun (the light of God) shines on the earth (bhur), in the sky (bhuvah), and in space (svah), and therefore the implication is, “let that light also shine on me.”

The technical explanation vyahriti has to do with subtle practices of meditational yoga. This earth is simply one of many planes of existence. In fact, above this earth are six higher planes, heavens as it were. Including this earth, there are seven planes up (heavens) and seven planes down, or hells below this earth. The earth is in the middle. If you have ever heard the expression, “he is in seventh heaven” you should understand that this is a reference to the Hindu idea of heavens. The seventh heaven is the highest heaven. The first three of these planes starting with the earth are called bhur, bhuvah and svah. The utterance bhur bhuvah svah, therefore, refers to the first three subtle planes of existence that may be reached in meditation by a yogi.

 

 

Hindu Samskaras 

A samskara is a rite of passage, and virtually every world culture has such ceremonies. Rites of passage are ceremonies that mark important events in the life of an individual. A Baptism, a wedding, a Bar Mitzvah, a Confirmation, and a funeral are all examples of rites of passage. Such important events generally include pre birth ceremonies, birth ceremonies, life ceremonies, death ceremonies and even after life ceremonies. In Sanskrit the word samskara literally means, “making perfect” or “refining,” and so a samskara is a ceremony of refinement, which is to say, refining or raising an individual beyond his or her mere physical existence and marking a higher spiritual existence. Samskaras bind an individual into his or her social group.
In Hinduism, as with most religious cultures, samskaras are sacred ceremonies performed with the help of a priest and in the presence of family and friends. Traditionally there are twelve samskara, but some later traditions raise this number to sixteen. In practice, however, there are only about eight samskaras that are regularly performed. This number varies from family to family and from region to region. The most common ceremonies are a pre-birth ceremony (Simantoyannayanam), the name giving ceremony (Nama Karana), a first grains ceremony (Anna Prashanna), the first hair cutting (Mundan), starting school (Vidyarambhana), the thread giving ceremony (Upanayana), marriage (Vivaha) and the funeral (Antyesthi). As I briefly describe these ceremonies, be aware that there is a lot regional variation, and how a ceremony may be preformed in one community may vary a lot from how it is performed in another community.

Baby Shower (Simantoyannayanam)

Simantoyannayanam is a ceremony performed either in the fourth, sixth or eighth month of a woman’s pregnancy. It is done for the protection and health of the mother and the unborn child. Today we might compare this ceremony to a baby shower. Literary, it means “parting of the hair.” A priest is invited, mantras are chanted, and a fire ceremony (havan) is performed as the husband parts the hair of his wife and places vermilion in the parting of her hair. Family members and friends come bearing gifts for the mother and the coming new born. After the ceremony a meal is served.

The Name Giving (Nama Karana)

Nama Karana is the name giving ceremony performed after the birth of a child. Traditionally the name is not supposed to be given until the 11th day after the birth, but because Western hospitals demand a name on a birth certificate within hours of a birth, a name has to be given without the actual ceremony. In many cases immediately after a birth a family member will contact an astrologer or priest so that a horoscope can be prepared and a name determined according to the deals of the astrological chart. In this way a name is determined and legally given, but the religious samskara is not performed until much later.

First Solid Food (Anna Prashanna)

The next ceremony is the anna prashanam or the ceremony of “feeding the grains.” This is the child’s first solid food generally performed in sixth month. A child is brought to a temple, or a a priest is invited to the family’s home, and along with mantras and a sacred fire, food (usually a sweet rice preparation) is offered to God through the fire and “made” into prasada. The prasada is then fed to the child. In other words, the child’s first solid food is prasada, spiritual food.

First Hair Cutting (Mundan)

After the first grain’s ceremony, the Mundan or first hair cutting is the next samskara that may be performed. Different families perform this ceremony at different ages, but the ideal time is when the soft spot in the skull of the child vanishes, usually around 14 months. As in all samskaras, family, friends and a priest get together in the home or in a temple. Mantras are recited, a sacred fire is evoked and the priest with the help of the father or maternal uncle cut small locks of hair from four sides of the child’s head. After this ritual cutting, the child is taken to a barber that comes just for this occasion and the child’s hair is completely shaved. There is a belief that the first hair from the time of birth is impure and so shaving it off is a purification, but more importantly, the real point of the samskara is that it is a sacrifice. The parents of the child sacrifice the beauty of their child by shaving their child’s head, and in exchange they ask God for long life and prosperity for their child.

Starting School (Vidyarambhana)

The next samskara is called Vidyarambhana or beginning education. Vidya is knowledge and arambhana is commencing. This is usually performed around the ages of four or five years. The ceremony generally involves some mantras of sanctification and the worship of Sarasvati Devi, the Goddess of learning. Then, either on a chalk board or “scratched out” in a bed of plain rice, the child’s hand is guided in writing his first letters A, B, C... or whatever the local script maybe. Sometimes the name of an important family Deity, such as Rama is the first word written by the child.

Thread Ceremony (Upanayana)

The next samskara is called Upanayana. This is the equivalent of a Christian Confirmation or Jewish Bar Mitzvah. It is a coming of age ceremony and in Hinduism it is usually performed for adolescence boys. Today the ceremony is generally performed only within the traditional brahmin families. This is unfortunate because it is an important ceremony and virtually all boys could benefit from such a ritual. Traditionally the ceremony was performed by the three upper varnas and not just brahmins. The ceremony is sometimes called a “thread ceremony” because one of its important features is the investiture of a “sacred thread” that is placed over the shoulder of the boy. The thread is used in certain prayer rituals (called sandhya vandana) that are performed on a daily basis after the ceremony. The word upanayana comes from the sanskrit root “ni” which means “to lead” and so the upanayana is the “leading or coming closer,” which means the boy is becoming a man and taking on adult responsibilities and is also coming closer to the spiritual side of life to guru and ultimately to God. After the ceremony the boy is considered a dvija or twice born. He has completed his second birth. One’s physical birth from mother is the first birth. The upanayana is the spiritual or second birth that comes from father or guru. During the Upanayana ceremony the boy has his head shaved, is given a sacred bath, takes vows of study and celibacy and is given the ancient gayatri mantra which includes the investiture of the sacred thread. The mantra is whispered into the hear of the boy while ladies hold a cloth over the father, guru and boy for privacy. For more information see The Sacred Thread Ceremony.

Marriage (Vivaha)

Moving along in a chronological way the next import samskara is marriage. This is called Vivaha. As in virtually all cultures the marriage ceremony involves a bride and groom coming together in the presence of family and friends and then taking an oath of dedication to each other. In Sanskrit the word vivaha comes from the root vah which means to carry. The oath of dedication that the bride and groom take to each other is a contract that “carries” them along for the remainder of their lives. Most Hindu weddings involve an exchange of garlands between the bride and groom (jaya mala), a bestowal of the bride by her father to the groom (kanya dhanam), the lighting of a sacred fire (havan), circumambulation of the fire (parikramanam), and the taking of seven vows (sapta padi). In general southern marriages have the addition of a sacred necklace given to the bride by the groom (mangala sutra), and northern weddings have the addition of a sacred mark of vermilion applied by the groom to the bride in the parting of her hair (sindhura). There are, of course, huge variations between weddings, and many other aspects that we have not mentioned, especially in India where a ceremony can last many hours. In the West the average wedding lasts about an hour. For more detailed information see The Hindu Wedding.

Funeral (Antyesthi)

The final samskara is the antyesthi or the last rites. In the West, Hindu funerals are performed very differently than in India where there is a whole caste of specialized priests that only deal with death. Out of necessity, in the West temple priests perform funeral services in conjunction with the local system for handling the dead. In orthodox culture it is considered impure for temple priests to deal with death.
Upon the death of an individual the family will call a funeral home to prepare the body as well as a priest to perform the last rites. In India a funeral is generally performed before the sun goes down on the day of passing, but in the West the funeral may not be performed for many days while permits are obtained and family members are given time to assemble. During the funeral family members and friends come to a funeral home or chapel. Last rites are never performed in a temple. A priest recites mantras, some final rituals are performed that may include a havan, eulogies are said and family and friends are given the opportunity to offer their last respects with flower petals. Afterwards the body is taken to a crematorium where the body is committed to the fire. From the time of death and for about two weeks the family is in an official state of morning. They are not supposed to come to a temple or perform puja during this period. Every evening at this time prayers may be recited in the home and at the end of this period of mourning a special havan is performed by a priest for the release of the soul. Finally a meal is served to family members and friends and gifts are given to the priest(s). Weeks or months later the ashes may be taken to India to be disposed into a sacred river or, locally if it is possible, ashes may be put into the ocean. The funeral process can be an elaborate affair and one that varies greatly from community to community. For detailed information see Hindu Funeral Rites and Ancestor Worship.
These are the major samskaras that are still practiced today. The ones that have have not been mentioned include the conception ritual (Garbhadhana), a ceremony to create a son (Pum-savana), the birth ceremony (Jata Karman), the first trip out after birth (Nishkramana), returning home after graduation, and even a first saris tying ceremony for girls entering puberty.

Spiritual Practice: Sadhana 

In Hinduism one’s personal spiritual practice is called sadhana. The word sadhana indicates the instrument or means by which a goal is accomplished. In general there is no one sadhana or spiritual practice that applies to all. Hinduism recognizes that every individual has a unique position in life (adhikara) and therefore there is no one way for all. In this way there are many forms of God and one individual may be attracted to one form, while another individual may be attracted to another form of God. Similarly there are many different forms of yoga and a form of yoga that may be suited to one individual may not be suited to another individual, so in a similar manner, one’s spiritual practice or sadhana is unique to the individual depending on the goal they wish to achieve. So spiritual practice varies greatly from individual to individual. Examples of spiritual practice may include such things as, prayer, meditation, going on pilgrimage, giving charity, fasting, bathing, chanting of mantras, study of scripture, or even one’s daily work. They can all be a means to achieve a spiritual end. Sometimes the word bhajana is used to mean one’s internal spiritual practice.

Chanting: Japa 

The use of japa beads

Japa is the repetition of sounds and words. This is partly the same thing as chanting except that chanting can also be a certain way of singing or reciting prayers and mantras that may not involve repetition of words. Mantras can be chanted with a certain intonation of voice. Japa, on the other hand, is specifically the repetition of sounds and words. The best example is the repetition or chanting of the names of God as in the famous Hare Krishna mantra” hare krishna, hare krishna, krishna krishna, hare hare; hare rama, hare rama, rama rama, hare hare. This is a mantra that is commonly recited over and over again as japa. Usually some means of counting is employed such as a set of beads like a rosary set. Such beads are called a japa mala and a devotee may follow a vow to recite this mantra or some other mantra a specific number of times a day as part of his or her personal spiritual practice, sadhana. You may often hear the expression mantra-yoga or japa-yoga to mean that one is using the recitation of mantras as one’s main spiritual practice. A set of Hindu chanting beads generally contains 108 beads. Such beads may be made of sandalwood, crystal or in the case of Shaivas rudraksha seeds or in the case of Vaishnavas tulasi beads.